Chapter 1: Active Relaxation

Measurable results include thorough relaxation and the processing of emotions and memories. Experience suggests that this may help the meditator work through unresolved issues from his or her formative past.

In February 2014, the scientific journal Frontiers in Human Neuroscience published an article with a long title that many of us will have problems understanding:

Nondirective meditation activates default mode network and areas associated with memory retrieval and emotional processing (Xu et al., 2014)

With this title, it was not obvious that the article would become a bestseller. That, however, is exactly what happened.

In the following, we shall first look at the interest in nondirective meditation that this article created, and discuss some reasons for this interest. Then we shall ask the obvious question: What is nondirective meditation?

Enormous interest

The article has become exceedingly popular in terms of internet exposure, with almost 60,000 views and 5,000 downloads by mid-2018. It is among the one percent most popular articles published at the same time in any scientific journal and among the five percent most popular scientific articles published at any time since measurements began.

Following the publication of the article, the internet has become full of references both to “nondirective meditation” and to the article 2 itself. There are both questions and answers: “Can’t clear your 3 thoughts when you meditate? It might be better that way.” “A little 4 mind wandering during meditation helps process emotions.” “‘Nondirective’ meditation is most effective according to neuroscientists 5.” “When it comes to meditation, you’re probably trying 6 too hard.” In addition, several websites have been established for the sole purpose of sharing news and discussions about nondirective 7 meditation. The concept and the message have caught on.

In a scientific context, success is often measured by the number of times an article has been cited by other scientific articles. With regard to scientific citations, the article is among the top nine percent of articles published in the 61 open-access scientific jour8 nals from the Frontiers publisher.

New perspectives on the mind

One reason for the popularity of the article is that it contradicts widespread ideas about meditation and the human mind. Until recently, even scientists often treated all forms of meditation as if they were basically the same, a “black box” that produced its effects almost by magic (Davanger, 2013). To this day, many people falsely believe that meditation is necessarily about either concentration or mindfulness. In either case, it is often believed to empty the mind of thoughts. Nondirective meditation has a different focus: relaxation, a free mental attitude, and the acceptance of mind wandering and spontaneous thoughts. This reflects a different view of how the mind works.

In particular, spontaneous thoughts and mind wandering are seen in a much more positive light. The thoughts, feelings, images, and sensations that pass through the mind of their own accord are not seen as disturbances but are believed to be important resources. Since they fill our minds almost half of our waking time, this is quite encouraging.

In both cognitive psychology and the mindfulness movement, there has been a tendency to see mind wandering as a negative force. “The wandering mind is an unhappy mind,” as one famous article bluntly stated (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010). Mind wandering has been routinely linked to rumination, depression, and the modern smartphone society’s tendency toward constant distraction. Later, however, this view has been challenged by a number of research studies (Poerio et al., 2013). Mind wandering is there for a reason. It stimulates our memory of the past and our ability to plan for the future. It is a central feature of understanding both ourselves and others, of empathy and introspection. It helps us shift perspective as well as think and work more creatively, outside the box. Moreover, it is involved in the actualization, processing, and integration of experiences from the past.

It also helps us relax. For relaxation is not about emptying the mind of thoughts, nor about the brain becoming passive. Our hearts do not stop beating when we relax. Some bodily functions even become more active when we relax. Something similar turns out to be true of the mind. Around the turn of the millennium, it became clear that the human brain, as well as the brains of rats and other mammals, contains a network that is mostly passive when we work actively toward a goal, but becomes active when we let go and begin to relax. This is the “default mode network,” also known as the “resting state network.” When we relax and this network becomes active, our mind tends to wander. Spontaneous thought is an integral part of relaxation.

Some research points to an even more fundamental role for the default mode network. This network provides the neural basis for any kind of subjective experience, in other words, for consciousness itself. According to Georg Northoff (2016), the distinction between self and environment and the sense of time and space are basic building blocks of human experience, and they are products of the resting brain. Thus, working with the default mode network in nondirective meditation touches upon the very foundations of our mental apparatus.

Defining nondirective meditation

Eifring (2016a) defines meditation as “an attention-based technique for inner transformation” (p. 1) and implies that it seeks to bring about “the anchoring of the person in more fundamental aspects of existence” (p. 9), whether this is interpreted in spiritual or secular terms. Undoubtedly, not all meditators have such far-reaching aims, but the definition implies that meditation has the potential to be more than a simple relaxation technique.

The concept of nondirective meditation has been around for almost fifty years. The psychologist Claudio Naranjo (1971) may have been the first to use it, although in a very different context and with 9 slightly different connotations. The concept gradually acquired its present meaning in a number of scientific articles on Acem Meditation (Xu et al., 2014; Lagopoulos et al., 2009; Nesvold et al., 2012; Ellingsen & Holen, 2015; Gutierrez et al., 2015). It has also been the focus of an entire chapter in a book on the cultural history of meditation (Eifring, 2016b), as well as a doctoral thesis on philosophical hermeneutics (Solli, 2016). In addition to Acem Meditation, the most well-known types of nondirective meditation include Transcendental Meditation, Clinically Standardized Meditation, and the Relaxation Response.

So what is nondirective meditation? This book builds on the following definition:

A meditation technique is nondirective to the extent that it facilitates the stimulus-independent, spontaneous activity of the mind. This is reflected in increased activity of the brain’s default mode network, also known as the resting state network, during meditation.

In the following, we shall look into some of the concepts referred to in the definition.

Spontaneous activity

The kinds of spontaneous activities mentioned in the definition include all thoughts, feelings, sensations, images, etc. that come and go of their own accord, as reflected in the default mode network activity. Activities of the default mode network have been interpreted to indicate that the mind is at rest. This does not imply a passive inactivity, but rather an unrestricted free flow, somewhat similar to the heart and vascular system, which freely propagate the flow of blood even when the body is at rest. The definition of nondirective meditation is based on how the meditator relates to this spontaneous mental activity.

Spontaneous mental activity is often referred to with the less formal term “mind wandering,” a metaphor that emphasizes its digressive nature. In research contexts, it is also often called “stimulus-independent thought” or “task-unrelated thought,” with a focus on the absence of an external stimulus. The terms “self-referential thought” and “autobiographical thought” are often used to highlight the self-oriented content that is typical of this type of mental activity. Finally, some researchers simply call it “daydreaming” or “fantasy,” with a focus on the use of imagination.

Each of these terms comes with its own conceptual implications, and if taken seriously, such distinctions may have consequences for the interpretation of scientific results or philosophical analysis, since the object of study will not be the same. In our context, the adjective “spontaneous” emphasizes the unconstrained and non-deliberate flow of mental activity—free-floating, easygoing, and natural.

Deliberate activity

Meditation techniques also have deliberate components in addition to spontaneous mental activity. In all types of meditation, deliberate activities imply turning the attention toward a meditation object, such as the breath or a meditation sound. In breathing meditation, the use of attention is often the only form of deliberate activity, since the breath itself is a spontaneous element. In sound-based techniques, however, deliberate activities also include the mental generation of the meditation sound.

Under most conditions, deliberate action reduces the activities of the brain’s default mode network and activates the central executive network instead. However, several studies have shown that mentally repeating a meditation sound with a free mental attitude increases the activity of the default mode network more than does simple resting (Xu et al., 2014; Engström et al., 2010; Travis & Shear, 2010). In other words, the best way to trigger spontaneous mental activity is not necessarily to avoid any deliberate activity, but rather to choose those kinds of deliberate activities that maintain the dynamics of the default mode network.

In the most typical kinds of nondirective meditation, the deliberate activity combines the use of three elements: a free mental attitude, a non-semantic and non-symbolic meditation object, and the use of a sound as the meditation object—as in the yellow area of the following figure:

Figure 1.1. The three elements of the deliberate activity of nondirective meditation. The yellow area in the middle represents the combination of all three elements present in the most typical cases: a free mental attitude, a sound-based meditation object, and a non-semantic meditation object.

Of these three elements, however, only the free mental attitude is absolutely necessary. Xu et al. (2014) show that repeating a meditation sound with a free mental attitude, i.e., effortlessly, and with no attempt to reduce or alter spontaneous activity, will increase the activity of the default mode network more than will repeating the sound with concentration, i.e., by making an effort to repeat the sound strongly and actively avoiding mind wandering.

Thus, the free mental attitude is a central element of nondirective meditation. The free mental attitude characterizes both an effortless activity, in this case gently repeating a meditation sound, and a wide-angled attention, in this case being aware of both the meditation sound and the spontaneous mental activity that often comes and goes in the periphery of the mind.

The use of non-semantic and non-symbolic meditation objects is not a universal feature of nondirective types of meditation. However, semantic or symbolic content tends to generate specific associations. These associations tend to influence the content of spontaneous activities, which gives them a directive component. In the most prototypical forms of nondirective meditations, therefore, the meditation object is non-semantic and non-symbolic.

The use of a sound-based meditation object does not necessarily follow from the definition of nondirective meditation. In practice, however, most known forms of nondirective meditation use a meditation sound or a mantra as their meditation object. It is fully conceivable that the use of other meditation objects (e.g., the breath) with a free mental attitude may activate the spontaneous activity to just as great a degree, but to our knowledge this has not yet been tested or shown.

Directive meditation

Directive meditation limits the free flow of spontaneous mental activity, sometimes by actively suppressing it, sometimes by refocusing away from it, sometimes by seeking to change its content in subtle or more obvious ways, and sometimes by involving so much effort in the deliberate activities that the spontaneous activities are given less or no leeway. Some forms of directive meditation may still increase the amount of default mode network activity beyond resting-state levels, but to a more limited degree than does nondirective meditation.

Mindfulness meditation

Mindfulness meditation has often been said to reduce spontaneous activity. This has partly been based on a view of mind wandering and default mode network activity that equates mind wandering with rumination or depressive thoughts, though this view is no longer generally regarded as valid. To the extent that mindfulness does reduce spontaneous activity, it is a form of directive meditation. However, the term mindfulness covers a number of techniques. Open monitoring and loving-kindness meditation have both been shown to involve effort; they are not particularly relaxing (Lumma et al., 2015). It seems likely that this reduces the spontaneous activity of the default mode network. In addition, loving-kindness meditation involves an attempt to change the spontaneous activity in a more “loving” and “kind” direction. Accordingly, both of them should be seen as directive techniques.

In comparison, breathing meditation can in some cases involve less effort and be quite relaxing. If performed with a free mental attitude, breathing meditation is therefore more likely to activate 10 spontaneous activity and the default mode network. However, many forms of breathing meditation include an element of selfobservation that comes close to open monitoring, with clear directive features. One such element is the instruction to terminate, or let go of, spontaneous thoughts after the meditator has become aware of them.

Neural and physiological correlates

Default mode network activity is the most obvious verifiable neural correlate of the spontaneous activities of the mind. That is why it has been included in the definition above. Directive meditation tends to reduce the activity of the default mode network or, in some cases, to activate it to a more limited degree.

A similar contrast probably holds for brain waves. Nondirective meditation is characterized by increased alpha wave activity, possibly also high synchronicity, in the posterior regions of the brain, in addition to increased theta wave activity in frontal regions (Lagopoulos et al., 2009). The pattern for mindfulness meditation and possibly other forms of directive meditation seems to be much more diverse (Travis & Shear, 2010, section 3).

Nondirective meditation has long been known to elicit a relaxation response in which the organism works in a way that is opposite to the stress response: slower heartbeat and respiration, lower oxygen consumption, a decreased galvanic skin conductance, a higher heart rate variability, and, in everyday life outside meditation, a gradual decrease of blood pressure. It would be interesting to investigate the extent to which directive meditation and mindfulness differ from nondirective meditation in this respect. To judge from one study, there may indeed be differences at least with regard to heart rate and heart rate variability, the latter regarded as a sign of heart health (Lumma et al., 2015).

If all of this is confirmed, it implies that the degree of neural and physiological relaxation is more evident when relaxation comes as a result of autonomic processes than when the meditator deliberately attempts to relax or obtain other results in directive ways.

Effects of nondirective meditation

The definition above applies to activity during meditation. Another aspect of the meditative activation of spontaneous activity relates to the effects that come after meditation, i.e., effects that influence the person’s daily functioning. Nondirective meditation is processoriented rather than goal-oriented.

Just as the relaxation response of nondirective meditation may turn out to be stronger when no active pursuit of relaxation takes place, nondirective meditation seems likely to have the most beneficial long-term effects on life. Some of these effects are quantifiable, while others are better understood on the basis of self-reports.

There may even be a close connection between the relaxing effects during meditation and the long-term effects related to personal change outside of meditation. The default mode network areas activated during meditation overlap with important areas for memory retrieval and emotional processing. In the long run, this may support the working through of long-term unresolved psychological issues from the person’s formative past, often reported by those involved in nondirective meditation.

In short, nondirective meditation brings into play mechanisms for relaxation and change that are already a part of the human body and mind. Experience indicates that this bottom-up approach is even more effective than the top-down approaches of directive meditation and some mindfulness practices.

Notes

1 As measured by Altmetric (altmetric.com). Altmetric measures impact in social media and non-traditional publishing channels, including public policy documents, mainstream media, blogs, peer-review forums, etc. Measurements started in 2011. According to Loop (loop-impact.frontiersin.org), the article had been visited 58,323 times and downloaded 4,703 times as of June 1, 2018. 2 For a selection of online news channels, see the English channel Daily Mail (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2630446/Does-meditation-makeSMART-Letting-mind-wander-lets-brains-process-MORE-thoughtsconcentrating.html), the Canadian channel CTV News (https://www.ctvnews.ca/ health/nondirective-meditation-is-most-effective-according-toneuroscientists-1.1824701), the American channel Fox News (http://www.foxnews. com/health/2014/05/19/nondirective-meditation-helps-brain-processmemories-and-emotions-study-says.html), the Norwegian channel Aftenposten (https://www.aftenposten.no/norge/i/7lJd3/Slik-fungerer-hjernen-undermeditasjon), the Indian channel The Economic Times (https://economictimes. indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/mindfullness-and-yogameditation-helps-processing-thought-and-feeling-better/articleshow/59441079. cms), the Taiwanese channel China Daily (http://www.chinatimes.com/ newspapers/20140706000576-260117), as well the Singaporean and the Filipino versions of Yahoo News (https://sg.news.yahoo.com/nondirectivemeditation-most-effective-according-neuroscientists-104219987.html; https://ph.news.yahoo.com/nondirective-meditation-most-effectiveaccording-neuroscientists-104219987.html?guccounter=1). For popularized science, see Psychology Today (https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/theathletes-way/201504/10-ways-mindfulness-and-meditation-promote-well-being), Science Daily (https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/05/140515095545. htm), WorldHealth.net (https://www.worldhealth.net/news/biology-meditation/) and Clinical Research Society (https://www.clinicalresearchsociety.org/linkbetween-brain-activity-and-meditation/). 3 https://www.healthcentral.com/article/cant-clear-your-thoughts-when-youmeditate-it-might-be-better-that-way 4 https://spiritualityhealth.com/blogs/spirituality-health/2014/05/20/tracipedersen-little-mind-wandering-during-meditation-helps 5 https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/nondirective-meditation-is-most-effectiveaccording-to-neuroscientists-1.1824701 http://blog.ghfc.com/post/140944558901/when-it-comes-to-meditationyoure-probably 7 https://www.reddit.com/r/nondirective/; https://nondirective.org 8 According to Loop. Google Scholar shows 38 citations, while the Web of Science shows 19 citations. 9 “In contrast to the directive approach to meditation, in which the individual places himself under the influence of a symbol, we find a non-directive approach in which the person lets himself be guided by the promptings of his own deeper nature.” (Naranjo, 1971, p. 15) 10 Default mode network activity during mind-wandering phases of breathing meditation has been recorded by Wendy Hasenkamp and co-workers (Hasenkamp et al., 2012). In this study, however, mind-wandering phases are not compared to phases of ordinary rest, and there is no indication that breathing meditation is practiced with a free mental attitude.

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